Evaluating the Relationship between Various Risk Factors and COVID-19 Incidence in People Living with HIV: A Cross-Sectional Study


Cite item

Full Text

Abstract

Introduction:People living with HIV (PLWH) are more susceptible to acquiring and having serious consequences from COVID-19. The objective of this study was to examine the correlation between COVID-19 infection and other risk factors in these patients.

Methods:This is a descriptive-analytical study recruiting 160 PLWH referred to the Behavioral Disease Counselling Centre of Imam Khomeini Hospital in Tehran in 2021. The patients were selected through convenient sampling. A checklist was used to collect the necessary data. Descriptive statistical tests, such as mean and standard deviation, were employed alongside inferential statistics, including chi-square, Fisher, independent t-tests, and logistic regression, all evaluated at a significance level of p(<0.05 using the R software.

Results:The patients' average age was 43.15 ± 11.23. Forty-four women and 116 men were present. A notable association was observed between the incidence of COVID-19 and variables such as hepatitis C and the duration of time since HIV diagnosis (p(<0.001). Moreover, a strong correlation was found between the amount of COVID-19 vaccination doses given to patients and their probability of acquiring the disease. The first vaccination dose was linked to a 5.45 percent increase in COVID-19 incidence in patients, whereas the second and third doses (t=2.95, t=7.57) reduced the risk of getting COVID-19. Furthermore, no discernible link (p>0.05) was found between the use of various antiretroviral medications and COVID-19 infection.

Conclusion:This study finds that vaccine type doesn't impact COVID-19 outcomes in HIV-positive patients, but receiving more doses decreases the probability of occurrence of COVID-19, advocating for multiple vaccinations. However, PLWH, especially those non-compliant with antiretrovirals, need strict adherence to health protocols due to heightened vulnerability to viral illnesses.

About the authors

Hamid Harandi

Iranian Research Center for HIV/AIDS, Iranian Institute for Reduction of High-Risk Behaviors, Tehran University of Medical Sciences

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Fatemeh Afroughi

Pars Hospital, Iran University of Medical Sciences

Email: info@benthamscience.net

SeyedAhmad SeyedAlinaghi

Iranian Research Center for HIV/AIDS, Iranian Institute for Reduction of High-Risk Behaviors, Tehran University of Medical Sciences

Author for correspondence.
Email: info@benthamscience.net

Seyed Ali Manshadi

Iranian Research Center for HIV/AIDS, Iranian Institute for Reduction of High-Risk Behaviors, Tehran University of Medical Sciences

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Zohal Parmoon

Iranian Research Center for HIV/AIDS, Iranian Institute for Reduction of High-Risk Behaviors, Tehran University of Medical Sciences

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Muhammad Ali Rasheed

Iranian Research Center for HIV/AIDS, Iranian Institute for Reduction of High-Risk Behaviors, Tehran University of Medical Sciences

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Mehrnaz Rasoulinejad

Iranian Research Center for HIV/AIDS, Iranian Institute for Reduction of High-Risk Behaviors, Tehran University of Medical Sciences

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Soudabeh Yarmohammadi

Trauma Research Center, Kashan University of Medical Sciences

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Esmaeil Mehraeen

Department of Health Information Technology, Khalkhal University of Medical Sciences

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Omid Dadras

Bergen Addiction Research, Department of Addiction Medicine, Haukland University Hospital

Email: info@benthamscience.net

References

  1. Lu H, Stratton CW, Tang YW. Outbreak of pneumonia of unknown etiology in Wuhan, China: The mystery and the miracle. J Med Virol 2020; 92(4): 401-2. doi: 10.1002/jmv.25678 PMID: 31950516
  2. Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, et al. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature 2020; 579(7798): 265-9. doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2008-3 PMID: 32015508
  3. Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 2020; 579(7798): 270-3. doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7 PMID: 32015507
  4. Gorbalenya AE, Baker SC, Baric RS, et al. The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2. Nat Microbiol 2020; 5(4): 536-44. doi: 10.1038/s41564-020-0695-z PMID: 32123347
  5. Mehraeen E, Oliaei S, SeyedAlinaghi S, et al. COVID-19 in pediatrics: A systematic review of current knowledge and practice. Infect Disord Drug Targets 2022; 22(5): e290921196908. doi: 10.2174/1871526521666210929121705 PMID: 34587889
  6. Pashaei Z, SeyedAlinaghi S, Qaderi K, et al. Retracted: Prenatal and neonatal complications of COVID ‐19: A systematic review. Health Sci Rep 2022; 5(2): e510. doi: 10.1002/hsr2.510 PMID: 35224216
  7. Shi Y, Wang G, Cai X, et al. An overview of COVID-19. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2020; 21(5): 343-60. doi: 10.1631/jzus.B2000083 PMID: 32425000
  8. World Health Organization.WHO COVID-19 dashboard 2023. Available from: https://data.who.int/dashboards/covid19/cases
  9. SeyedAlinaghi S, Karimi A, Barzegary A, et al. COVID-19 mortality in patients with immunodeficiency and its predictors: a systematic review. Eur J Med Res 2022; 27(1): 195. doi: 10.1186/s40001-022-00824-7 PMID: 36209202
  10. Iran (Islamic Republic of) Available from: https://www.who.int/countries/irn
  11. Peçanha T, Goessler KF, Roschel H, Gualano B. Social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic can increase physical inactivity and the global burden of cardiovascular disease. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2020; 318(6): H1441-6. doi: 10.1152/ajpheart.00268.2020 PMID: 32412779
  12. Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, et al. Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review. F1000 Res 2020; 9: 636. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.24457.1 PMID: 33093946
  13. Dubey S, Biswas P, Ghosh R, et al. Psychosocial impact of COVID-19. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2020; 14(5): 779-88. doi: 10.1016/j.dsx.2020.05.035 PMID: 32526627
  14. SeyedAlinaghi S, Mirzapour P, Pashaei Z, et al. The impacts of COVID-19 pandemic on service delivery and treatment outcomes in people living with HIV: a systematic review. AIDS Res Ther 2023; 20(1): 4. doi: 10.1186/s12981-022-00496-7 PMID: 36609313
  15. Zhang M, Liang Y, Yu D, et al. A systematic review of vaccine breakthrough infections by SARS-CoV-2 delta variant. Int J Biol Sci 2022; 18(2): 889-900. doi: 10.7150/ijbs.68973 PMID: 35002532
  16. Kumar A, Arora A, Sharma P, et al. Is diabetes mellitus associated with mortality and severity of COVID-19? A meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2020; 14(4): 535-45. doi: 10.1016/j.dsx.2020.04.044 PMID: 32408118
  17. Lima-Martínez MM, Carrera Boada C, Madera-Silva MD, Marín W, Contreras M. COVID-19 and diabetes: A bidirectional relationship. Clin Investig Arterioscler 2021; 33(3): 151-7. PMID: 33303218
  18. Huang I, Lim MA, Pranata R. Diabetes mellitus is associated with increased mortality and severity of disease in COVID-19 pneumonia – A systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2020; 14(4): 395-403. doi: 10.1016/j.dsx.2020.04.018 PMID: 32334395
  19. Ejaz H, Alsrhani A, Zafar A, et al. COVID-19 and comorbidities: Deleterious impact on infected patients. J Infect Public Health 2020; 13(12): 1833-9. doi: 10.1016/j.jiph.2020.07.014 PMID: 32788073
  20. Zhao Q, Meng M, Kumar R, et al. The impact of COPD and smoking history on the severity of COVID‐19: A systemic review and meta‐analysis. J Med Virol 2020; 92(10): 1915-21. doi: 10.1002/jmv.25889 PMID: 32293753
  21. Fung M, Babik JM. COVID-19 in Immunocompromised Hosts: What We Know So Far. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 72(2): 340-50. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa863 PMID: 33501974
  22. Baek MS, Lee MT, Kim WY, Choi JC, Jung SY. COVID-19-related outcomes in immunocompromised patients: A nationwide study in Korea. PLoS One 2021; 16(10): e0257641. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0257641 PMID: 34597325
  23. Blanco JL, Ambrosioni J, Garcia F, et al. COVID-19 in patients with HIV: clinical case series. Lancet HIV 2020; 7(5): e314-6. doi: 10.1016/S2352-3018(20)30111-9 PMID: 32304642
  24. Vizcarra P, Pérez-Elías MJ, Quereda C, et al. Description of COVID-19 in HIV-infected individuals: a single-centre, prospective cohort. Lancet HIV 2020; 7(8): e554-64. doi: 10.1016/S2352-3018(20)30164-8 PMID: 32473657
  25. SeyedAlinaghi S, Ghadimi M, Hajiabdolbaghi M, et al. Prevalence of COVID-19-like Symptoms among people living with HIV, and using antiretroviral therapy for prevention and treatment. Curr HIV Res 2020; 18(5): 373-80. doi: 10.2174/18734251MTA47MTAhy PMID: 32652912
  26. Symptoms of COVID-19. 2024. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/symptoms-testing/symptoms.html
  27. Stoeckle K, Johnston CD, Jannat-Khah DP, et al. COVID-19 in hospitalized adults with HIV. Open Forum Infect Dis 2020; 7(8): ofaa327. doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofaa327 PMID: 32864388
  28. SeyedAlinaghi S, Karimi A, MohsseniPour M, et al. The clinical outcomes of COVID‐19 in HIV‐positive patients: A systematic review of current evidence. Immun Inflamm Dis 2021; 9(4): 1160-85. doi: 10.1002/iid3.497 PMID: 34324280
  29. Burch LS, Smith CJ, Phillips AN, Johnson MA, Lampe FC. Socioeconomic status and response to antiretroviral therapy in high-income countries. AIDS 2016; 30(8): 1147-61. doi: 10.1097/QAD.0000000000001068 PMID: 26919732
  30. Bogart LM, Ojikutu BO, Tyagi K, et al. COVID-19 Related Medical Mistrust, Health Impacts, and Potential Vaccine Hesitancy Among Black Americans Living With HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2021; 86(2): 200-7. doi: 10.1097/QAI.0000000000002570 PMID: 33196555
  31. Pereira M, Oliveira AM. Poverty and food insecurity may increase as the threat of COVID-19 spreads. Public Health Nutr 2020; 23(17): 3236-40. doi: 10.1017/S1368980020003493 PMID: 32895072
  32. Garcia PJ, Cabrera DM, Cárcamo PM, Diaz MM. HIV and COVID-19 in Latin America and the Caribbean. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2022; 19(1): 37-45. doi: 10.1007/s11904-021-00589-4 PMID: 35092570
  33. Lesko CR, Bengtson AM. HIV and COVID-19: Intersecting Epidemics With Many Unknowns. Am J Epidemiol 2021; 190(1): 10-6. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwaa158 PMID: 32696057
  34. Oyelade T, Raya RP, Latief K. HIV infection and the implication for COVID‐19 vaccination. Public Health Chall 2022; 1(3): e14. doi: 10.1002/puh2.14 PMID: 37521727
  35. SeyedAlinaghi S, Taj L, Mazaheri-Tehrani E, et al. HIV in Iran: onset, responses, and future directions. AIDS 2021; 35(4): 529-42. doi: 10.1097/QAD.0000000000002757 PMID: 33252485
  36. Ceballos ME, Ross P, Lasso M, et al. Clinical characteristics and outcomes of people living with HIV hospitalized with COVID-19: a nationwide experience. Int J STD AIDS 2021; 32(5): 435-43. doi: 10.1177/0956462420973106 PMID: 33533294
  37. Kassanjee R, Davies MA, Ngwenya O, Osei-Yeboah R, Jacobs T, Morden E, et al. COVID-19 among adults living with HIV: Correlates of mortality in a general population in a resource-limited setting. medRxiv 2022. doi: 10.1101/2022.10.17.22281085
  38. Sun J, Jiang R, Shao Y, et al. Antiretroviral therapy-naïve people living with HIV tend to have more severe symptoms of COVID-19. Chin Med J 2023; 136(22): 2753-5. doi: 10.1097/CM9.0000000000002902 PMID: 37920969
  39. Zhou Q, Zeng F, Meng Y, Liu Y, Liu H, Deng G. Serological response following COVID-19 vaccines in patients living with HIV: a dose–response meta-analysis. Sci Rep 2023; 13(1): 9893. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-37051-x PMID: 37336939
  40. Ørbo HS, Bjørlykke KH, Sexton J, et al. Incidence and outcome of COVID-19 following vaccine and hybrid immunity in patients on immunosuppressive therapy: identification of protective post-immunisation anti-RBD antibody levels in a prospective cohort study. RMD Open 2024; 10(2): e003545. doi: 10.1136/rmdopen-2023-003545 PMID: 38599653
  41. Cooper TJ, Woodward BL, Alom S, Harky A. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) outcomes in HIV/AIDS patients: a systematic review. HIV Med 2020; 21(9): 567-77. doi: 10.1111/hiv.12911 PMID: 32671970
  42. Guo S, Zhang J, Yang X, et al. Impact of HIV on COVID-19 Outcomes: A Propensity Score Matching Analysis with Varying Age Differences. AIDS Behav 2023; 1-12. doi: 10.1007/s10461-023-04088-y PMID: 37289345
  43. Sardiwalla Y, Nachmani O, Price E, Huynh M, Coroneos C, McRae M. Upper Extremity Infection Related to Intravenous Drug Use: Considering the True Cost of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdown. Hand (N Y) 2023; 18(6): 999-1004. doi: 10.1177/15589447221077377 PMID: 35193427
  44. Mohammadi Z, Eghtesad S, Hashemi-Shahri SM, Tabatabaei SM, Sharafkhah M, Poustchi H. The Seroprevalence of COVID-19 in Intravenous Drug Users in Comparison to Non-drug Users. Middle East J Dig Dis 2021; 13(1): 67-70. doi: 10.34172/mejdd.2021.206 PMID: 34712441

Supplementary files

Supplementary Files
Action
1. JATS XML
Download

Copyright (c) 2024 Bentham Science Publishers